Life Cycle Assessment as a Strategic Tool - Part 1/2

Life Cycle Assessment

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a holistic scientific process used to evaluate the environmental impact of a material, produce, system or service. An LCA quantifies the impact of each component of the activity on the environment. LCA quantifies the use of physical resources as inputs and environmental impacts as outputs for any activity. Inputs may be raw materials, water, energy, land use, etc. whereas outputs are pollution, air emissions, water emissions, solid waste, radiation, etc. To be able to quantify and measure the environmental impact, numerous impact categories and indexes are used such as toxicity, carbon emissions, embodied energy, waste generation, land clearing, eutrophication, embodied water, acidification, etc. LCA breaks down all the parts and processes going to a material or a product to then be able to assess in detail where environmental impacts occur across the entire life-cycle of an activity. The final report entails these specific impacts and their effects on climate change, human health, ecosystem quality and non-renewable resources. This is an internationally recognized assessment tool used to inform decision-makers allowing them to reduce the negative impacts of new products on the environment, identify what can be improved in existing products, avoid modifying one aspect that may cause more significant issues at another stage in a product’s life and compare the environmental performance of similar products.

Everything that is created goes through several key life-cycle stages namely –

• Supply of raw material by suppliers
• Transportation
• Manufacturing
• Packaging
• Use
• Disposal

Some analysts use a Cradle to Gate analysis which includes the first four stages of getting a product to the market. Others use a more holistic approach called a Cradle to Grave analysis which considers all 6 stages from sourcing materials all the way to waste disposal. We propose Cradle to Cradle analysis considering a full loop of recycling and re-using as an alternative form of waste disposal. Cradle to cradle design derives inspiration from nature where there is no waste. Broad implementation of cradle to cradle design would allow space for responsible consumption while enriching and revitalizing damage in environmental systems.

Under LCA, consumers have the purchasing responsibility to consider the impact of their choices on the broader environment. Government has the responsibility to protect us from the harm of environment degradation by unsustainable production and consumption through regulation and monitoring. Businesses have the responsibility to continually reduce their ecological footprint.

Circular Economy

Living systems have been around for billions of years and will be sustained for many more. In the living world there’s no landfill. Instead, materials flow. One species’ waste is another’s food, energy is provided by the sun, species grow and die, and the nutrients return to the soil.

As humans, the current economic system we live in is linear relying on cheap easily available resources and functional energy. We take, make, use, and dispose; eating into a finite supply of materials and resources which generates toxic waste. As a result, resources and energy deplete and are increasingly becoming difficult and expensive to exploit. This system is unsustainable in the long run. This invites a change in the perception of the operating system of ownership we currently possess.

In a circular economy, consumers don’t buy goods, but license them. In this model, manufacturers and retailers remain the owners of the products while maintenance and repair become a part of the deal. In such a system, we can design products which can come back to their makers to reuse their technical parts and letting their biological parts add value to agriculture. It makes sense for the companies to retain precious materials when their future availability is uncertain and prices are forecasted to rise. In such a system, buying expensive goods upfront would no longer be a necessity. This system is already in place for cars and mobile phones. There is no reason why it cannot be extended for refrigerators, washing-machines, irons, etc. There would be a need to cycle valuable metals, polymers and alloys so they maintain their quality and continue to be useful beyond the shelf-life of individual products. Increasingly, these products would be made and transported using renewable energy. This converts the goods of today into the resources of tomorrow. The culture shifts from the present throw-away and replace one to that of return and renewing where products and components are designed to be disassembled and regenerated. This model builds prosperity long-term. Such a system even encourages companies to provide better maintenance service extending the responsibility of the product at their end.

Every product faces a wide variety of needs both from the viewpoint of a consumer as well as that of a producer. A one-size-fit-all proposition cannot be applicable. Tailored contracts and innovative solutions would be the need of this system. The essence of this system would be in variety, freedom, flexibility, and frequent upgrades. Communication technologies would be needed to find, exchange and re-market goods and services. The crux of the system lies in access to the information. The aim is to reduce our energy needs which assists the switch to renewable sources.

A circular economy works long-term by designing out waste, keeping valuable materials in the loop, maintaining and remanufacturing them, creating jobs in the process. In a circular economy, there’s a world of opportunities for individuals as well as businesses through creativity and innovation. The focus remains using waste to build capital rather than reducing it. However, the circular economy cannot work for just one manufacturer changing one product. It has to incorporate all interconnecting companies that form our infrastructure and economy.

LCA as a part of Strategic Sustainability

LCAs can be time consuming and therefore costly. Yet, are a powerful and critical path of the product development process. General knowledge available to assist us in life-cycle thinking increases with the number of LCAs conducted. This further introduces strategic decision making for sustainable designs into the product development process inviting innovation in outcomes. Product design engineers incorporate the use of a streamlined assessment tool into the design process.

Initially, the occurrence of environmental hotspots in product design and material choice are identified. Once an environmentally preferable product design has been achieved, alternative materials are considered. Also, the new material must be tested for interactions with the design specifications.

LCA Framework

LCA is a robust scientific process governed by the framework set out in ISO:14040 which details the ways an LCA can be conducted, reported and promoted. A detailed framework can be viewed as follows.

Goal and definition (ISO:14041)	The basis and scope of the evaluation are defined.
Inventory analysis (ISO:14041)	Creating a process tree in which all processes from raw material extraction through waste water treatment are mapped out and connected mass-energy balances are closed, i.e. all emissions are accounted for.
Impact assessment (ISO:14042)	Emissions and consumptions are translated into environmental effects. The environmental effects are grouped and weighed.
Improvement Interpretation (ISO:14043)	Areas for improvement are identified.

Full LCAs are used to understand where impacts are occurring and assess different products and processes to define environmentally preferable alternatives.

This provides a company with many strategic advantages by using LCA such as:

Help to secure market and competitive positions	A number of companies use sustainability/life cycle thinking as a part of their product marketing pitch. In some industries (e.g. floor coverings), it’s part of the marketing approach for all companies.
Answer requests for environmental and social information	Company stakeholders are increasingly asking for more and better information on the environmental footprint of products. Being able to quickly supply that information shows the customer that it is something that a company is paying attention to on a regular basis.
Enhance a company’s public image	Communication of environmental information, including life cycle or sustainability data, can help to improve the image of some industries and companies that have problems.
Participating in green purchasing policies	Over the past few years, there has been a growth in the number of global and domestic initiatives that require a company to report product specific environmental information. Some examples: ·         The Federal Biobased Product Purchasing Program ·         European Ecolabel for paints and varnishes ·         The Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment initiative
Define R&D strategies and EMS systems	LCA has traditionally been used as an R&D tool to evaluate material and production alternatives, and it can be linked with an EMS system to ensure that process improvements and innovations are carried through the organization.
Identify cost savings	In a number of instances, the big picture provided by life cycle assessment has helped companies identify a number of significant cost savings.

Illustration: Wooden Pencils vs Plastic Pencils

In a simple example to show how LCA can help us to make more ecologically sensible decisions, we consider the comparison between wooden pencils and plastic pencils. While wood is a renewable resource, wooden pencils face a limited lifespan. Plastic pencils can be refilled and reused for years. Their life is limited only by misplacement and destruction. We consider a life-cycle assessment of both the products considering all the inputs and outputs used and made in the production of the 2 varieties of writing instruments.

Wooden cased pencils have a 4 times the raw material consumption than plastic pencils. The energy consumption of the 2 varieties is similar in nature. In terms of CO emissions, wooden pencils fare poorly by 5-6 times.

However, plastic pencils have twice the consumption of non-renewable resources and use 40% more water. There is a higher requirement of non-renewable energy and 90% more organic pollutants are emitted. The waste-water effluents are greater and there more solid waste is generated in the process. It can be said that plastic pencil production creates significantly more hazardous waste as compared to wooden pencils.

Individually, there seems to be a lesser environmental impact to make a wooden pencil than a plastic pencil. However, plastic pencils last much longer than wooden pencils. The only differences in environmental impacts are in solid waste generation, water consumption and CO₂ emissions. While wooden pencils fare better by a marginal amount in the first two categories, it makes up for the gain in CO₂ emissions. It is not possible for one to ascertain what is better for the society, clean land, water or air and so we give all parameters equal importance. It may be for specific economies to decide what they need to value more. In this case, we consider that environmental impacts are similar enough for life-span to make a difference. When refilled as intended, plastic pencils seem to have a smaller impact.

A better solution can still be posed by extending the life of plastic pencils by providing a larger eraser which allows more graphite in the barrel. Another aspect may be improving the quality of the plastic to make it last longer and discouraging misplacement as that is the most often reason cited to lose a plastic pencil. Waste can also be reduced by minimizing packaging.

Walmart’s Sustainibility Product Index

Walmart has developed a Sustainibility Product Index which gives life cycle scores to each product on its shelves via a sustainibility labelling system. This system is deemed to be in place by 2016. This measure is deemed to drive product innovation while improving the brand image of Walmart showcasing it as a socially-conscious company.

Walmart has also committed to reducing GHG emissions by eiminating suppliers which are responsible for 90% of its emissions. Walmart expects to reduce 20M tons of GHG emissions by 2015.

Toyota Prius

Under the current Global warming discussion, Toyora focussed on the impact of its vehicles on the environment over its whole life-cycle. Toyota committed itself to reduce CO₂ emissions at every stage of its life by incorporating LCA.

Toyota Prius is built in Toyota’s Tsutsumi plant which is one of Toyota’s 5 sustainable plants. The plant’s overall CO₂ emissions have been cut by 50% between 1990 and 2006. The installation of 50,000 photovoltaic solar panels in 2008 reduced CO₂ emissions by a further 740 tons/year. The total output of the panels is 2 MW, viz equal to the consumption of 500 Japanese households. This provides for half of the electricity requirements of the plant. The remaining half is produced by gas co-generation. Water recycling plants have led to a 50% reduction in plant water discharge to the local river system. The discharghed water is 5 times cleaner than the river itself. The assembly building is painted with 22k m² of photocatalytic paint which has the same effect as planting 2k trees which cleans the air by producing oxygen in sunlight. In 2008, 50k trees were planted at and around the factory. Prius incorporates a hybrid battery which upgrades by increasing in performance but decreasing in size. The hull is made of ecological plastic which is the world’s first injection moulded material to be derived by plants. Eco-plastics emit 20% less CO₂ during a product’s life-cycle. The driving phase accounts for 71% of Prius’ whole life-cycle  CO₂ emissions. An ECO mode is provided which monitors the ecological impact of driving Prius. This can reduce CO₂ emissions by 10-15%. Every new Prius contains 5.7 kg of recycled plastic materials including soundproofing products. More than 85% of Prius is recyclable and more than 95% is recoverable. A near-zero emission recycling process ensures that 95% of Prius’ high-voltage battery components are recovered for reuse. The battery case, wires and electrial parts are reused for steel and electronic component manufacturing. The power cells are recycled using an induction based vacuum thermal process. Concentrated Nickel alloy is reused in battery production. After a 150k km Prius’ total CO₂ emissions are 37% less for a comparable diesel or petrol vehicle.

Sony

Sony continues to promote the collection and recycling of end-of-life products, as well as to design products that are easily recyclable. Sony also continues to develop recycling systems for global markets that suit local needs. Since the new legislation was enacted, Sony India has handed over more than 88 tons of E-Waste, including generated service waste, to the recycler. Additionally, Sony India has expanded its focus to include the creation of a broad network of E-waste collection centers, thereby making it easier for customers to turn in their e-waste. As of the end of March 2013, approximately 20 collection points across the country had been established. Sony India plans to review the results of this initiative at the end of its financial year and formulate future plans accordingly.

Sony incorporates the following measures.

• Campaign to green minds
• Involving the last mile repair shops
• Adhering to the rules
• Developing products that can be upgraded to extend product life
• Develop products that can be reused or disposed of safely at the end of product life
• Develop and manufacture products that use recycled materials where technically and economically justifiable
• Develop products that provide improvements in energy efficiency
• Develop products that minimize resource use and environmental impacts through the use of environmentally preferred materials and finishes

Tropicana

Tropicana assessed the impact of 3 factors in the production of orange juice along with independent partners at Earth Institute, Columbia University. The facors were as follows:

• Growing and squeezing oranges
• Energy use in manufacturingg
• Distances that raw materials and finished goods were shipped

Earth Institute combined all the lifecycle inputs to calculate the product’s carbon footprint. The full lifecycle assessment, all assumptions and caculatons, and the conclusions were independently verified by the Carbon Trust. According to the analysis Tropicana found out that a 2L tetrapack of pure-premium orange juice produces 1.8 kg of CO₂ equivalents. On the basis of the findings, Tropicana started initiatives according to a priority order to reduce factory energy consumption which is given as folows:

• Agricultural Practices
• Sourcing Locations
• Packaging Material - (a) Quality, (b) Reusability
• Thermal and Electrical Efficiencies
• Transportation Methods

3M

An LCA study helps in discontinuing ScotchGard™ and related fluorochemical products (produced by 3M), based on assessment of potential fate, transport, and exposure pathways throughout the supply chain in the continental U.S.

Bristol Myers Squib

Since 2000, Bristol-Myers Squibb integrated PLC (product lifecycle) into their product development process. The company has, as for example, developed a new, enzymatic-based, and more environmentally friendly process for synthesizing the antibiotic Cefprozil.

Limitations of LCA

The major disadvantage of quantitative LCAs is their complexity and effort required. Designers and manufacturing engineers find it almost impossible to practically work with LCAs because of the material and energy inputs and outputs in a dynamic system. The consistent lack of solid data about all aspects of a products life cycle adds to the problems. Further, the nearly infinite amount of decisions to make and data to deal with makes the process cumbersome. The lack of standardization results in numerous conversions and interpretations which may be left to the analysts’ judgement which in turn results in different views on what is environmentally correct. Finally, the approach is currently only suitable for design analysis and evaluation rather than design synthesis. LCAs are "static" and only deal with a snapshot of the picture rather than entire dynamic flowing environment.

References

1. Life Cycle Assessment as part of Strategic Sustainability for Product Design. Autodesk. 2012.
2. Life Cycle Assessment. Cascades Fine Paper. 2011.
3. Toyota Prius Life Cycle Assessment Film. Toyota. 2010.
4. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Aebico. 2013.
5. Piekarski C M, da Luz L M, Zocche L, de Francisco, A C. Life Cycle Assessment as Entrepreneurial Tool for Business Management and Green Innovations. Journal of Technology Management and Innovation. J Technol Manag Innov. 2013. Volume 8.
6. Lifecycle Assessment: Where is it on your sustainibility agenda? Deloitte Development LLC. 2009.
7. Understanding Our Carbon Footprint. Tropicana.
8. Tate C, Padilla J, Jiang G. Wood-Cased Pencils vs Mechanical.